Macroevolution

What macro evolution means is to refer to any evolutionary change at the level of species, or a split of species into to. Or the change of a species over time into another species.

Evidence of macro evolution

Bio exam

Biology:  Evolution Take-Home Essay Exam


In no more than 8 double-spaced word-processed pages, answer the following question in a well-organized essay:


Explain evolution of species. Your answer should include a detailed description of how new species arise and how existing species change over time. Make sure you refer to the contributions of early theorists such as Lamarck and Charles Darwin. Include a discussion of microevolution and the evidence that exists that organisms have evolved and are evolving over time.  Discuss which types of evidence for evolution you find most convincing.

Required elements:

1.    Includes discussion of early theories from Lamarck, Darwin, and other early evolutionary philosophers. - 10pts max

Lamarck was the first scientist who confidently publicly stated his views and ideas on the process that lead to biological change. He full name was Jean-Baptist Chevalier de Lamarck. He stated and believed that microscope organism appear spontaneously from inanimate materials and then transmuted (evolved) into to more complex forms, through the constant strive for perfection. He thought that the ultimate product of this goal was to be humans. He believed the evolution was mostly due to the inheritance of acquired characteristics as creatures adapt to their environments. This means he thought that evolution occurs when an organism uses a body part in such a way that it is alters during its life time and this change is then inherited by its off spring.
Darwin was also an evolutionist but he wasn't very open about his ideas. His fully name was Eramus Darwin. He was a physician, poet, and amateur scientist. He believed that evolution has occurred in living things including humans, he only had rather fuzzy idea about the possibilities for these change. But also suggested that the earth and life on it must have been evolving for millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind. He wrote his ideas about evolution in poes and relatively obscure two volume  scientific publication. Named Zoonomia,  or laws of organic change.


2. Includes a discussion of microevolutionary mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, migration, and natural selection. - 10 pts max

Microevolution mechanismms are mutation, genetic drift, migration and natural selection. Mutation is  when  you have one species that breeds and happens to have an of gene that cause there of spring to have an ad normal trait that the mother and father didn't have.Genetic Drift is when a group of species  with random luck  has a specifies kind of gene that slowly starts to show more in the off spring. Migration is when a species moves on to new places and slowly becomes dominant in that area. Natural selection is when there is a predator  that picks of a species that shows more colors then the other For example if there are green brown beetles  the  green ones get ate more frequently then brown cause brown ones are more hidden.

3.  Includes a discussion of the evidence for evolution including the fields of biochemistry/DNA, embryology, the fossil record, and comparative morphology. -10 pts max

To study in the field of bio chemistry is the same as saying you study the chemical processes in living organisms, but not limited to living matter. This chemistry kind of governs all living organisms and the living process. And much of bio chemistry deals with the structures and functions of cellular components such as proteins , carbohydrates lipids and other bio molecules.  Embryology is a science which is about the development of an embryo from the fertilization of the ovum to the fetus stage. After clevage, the dividing cells, morula, becomes a hollow ball, or blastula, which develops a hole or pore at one end. The fossil record is a standard approach to looking at fossil in geological  columns is to assume lower is older. Since columns represent million years of earths history. The comparative morphology is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of organisms. Related to evolutionary biology.


4.  Includes a discussion of your own opinion about which types of evidence (if any) convince you that species have changed over time.
-10pts max

I do believe that there is some evidence that there provides evidence that evolution happens. But i only belive that the changes that actually occur over time can only prove  that through offspring certain generations take on new aspects like colors, hair, or eye colors and many  different other traits . But we can not evolve to the extremes of being able to grow bigger heart through, endurance on some one heart and expect for the of spring to have bigger hearts. Or to have some one live in extreme colds needing more hair, the offspring's wouldn't have more hair or grow fur.  But i do not believe any species have changed in such a way to create new kind of species. Just like plants you can have the same plant but get  different breads of  that that by pollination. And The offspring change a little but still hold the same traits as the previous plants.

5.  The paper is well-written and flows naturally from one topic to the next. The paper has a bibliography that cites any sources quoted in the body of the paper. -10 pts max

Bibliography:
1. http://anthro.palomar.edu/evolve/evolve_1.htm
2. http://www.detectingdesign.com/fossilrecord.html
3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_morphology
4.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry
5.http://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/dna_replication/index.html

Gel electrolphoresis

 Gel Electrophoresis is what they use to sequence Dna.   They sequence the Dna by putting drops of it in the slits at the end the gel. then run a charge through the gel and after about half hour r so the positive charged Dna runs down the medium (gel) and any negative charged Dna moves opposite direction. In this lab i learned how to use gel electrolysis  to sequence Dna. Although we only used die.

Gattaca

In this movie it depicts a future generation of people that have become so over whelm on the technologies of being able to sequence genes in such a way that they can tell you what  diseases you may have and and what the possiablities of your life span are. Its kinda crazy to think a world like this is possible but in reality we are already starting to do this.  We can now have designer babies that you can pick  how smart your baby will be or have stronger babies.And all they need is a drop of your Dna.  Then By sequencing it they can tell you every thing you need to know about your self and your health. In future generations of these kids start to think this is the better way to go what will happen to the world we live in. So i would have to say what this movie depicts is very possible and might not be to far away.

Pcr dna sequencing

Pcr is the process  in which. You take any sample of Dna and you take it through these process where you put the Dna sample that you have and places it in a vile. The first step is Pcr amplifications. You add polymers and primers to make many pieces of your desired pieces of Dna. Then by heating and cooling these together in a PTC Machine.  you start making copies of that Dna. With the Polymers and primers that we added. The second step is purification. you put the tubes in a centrifuge to get all the dna separate from the rest. Then the third step is to dilute the product increase volume. Then start process over again. Tell you have as much Dna as you need. IF it is a diesed cell you were looking to find or your babies daddy. You would now have many copies of that cell that you can study if you want to find what the genetic codes to that specific cell. Then you will be able to find what ever you need  to know about that Dna Cell.

Dna Analysis

In this graph it shows who has the higher percents chance of haveing a deseise. the results were graphed from a work sheet that had  the sequences of there dna on it.

Vocab

Anticodon- a triplet of nucleotides in rna designation a specific amino acid that binds to a corresponding codon in rna during protein synthesis

Codon- a sequence of three adjacent nucleotides constituting the genetic code that specifies the insertion of an amino acid

Exon-a nucleic acid sequence that is represented in mature form of an rna molecule either after portions of a precursor

Genetic Code-is a set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins by living cells.

Intron- are nucleotides sequences within genes that are removed by rna splicing to generate the final mature

mRNA (messenger RNA)-is a molecule of rna encoding a chemical “Blueprint”

Promoter-a regulatory region of dna located up stream of a gene

Protein-coding Gene- transcribes into Mrna

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)- one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known form of life

RNA polymerase-is an enzym that produces Rna.

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)-is the rna component of the ribosome

Transcription- is the process of creating a complementary Rna copy of a sequence of dna

Translation- an act of translating some thing

tRNA (transfer RNA)-is rna that transfers a specific active amino acids

Dna

We experimented with wheat germs to find dna.  Using wheat germ, warm water, detergent and ninety five percent ethanol alcohol. To extract Dna out of the wheat germ. the detergent is what is needed to break the cell wall to release the dna. the dna then floats to the top through the alcohol.

Pedigree

Question

1. What would a pedigree of Greg and Olga’s families look like? Concentrate simply on family relationships and affected persons.   The pedigree of Greg family would have one person with factor Vlll deficiency, four with myotonie dystrophy, two people died and six remained unaffected.  The pedigree of Olga's family would have one with factor Vlll, and one with hemophilia A, one with hemophilia, several that remained unaffected.

Questions

1. Do autosomal dominant disorders skip generations? Yes they can.
2. Could Greg or his mother be carriers of the gene that causes myotonic dystrophy? yes they could be carriers and not be affected.
3. Is there a possibility that Greg’s aunt or uncle is homozygous for the myotonic dystrophy (MD) gene? yes there is that possibility.
4. Symptoms of myotonic dystrophy sometimes don’t show up until after age fifty. What is the possibility that Greg’s cousin has inherited the MD gene? Its a fifty fifty chance you never know.
5. What is the possibility that Greg and Olga’s children could inherit the MD gene? fifty fifty.       

Questions

1. What are the hallmarks of an autosomal recessive trait?It is a trait that is mainly likned with the sex gene.
2. What does consanguineous mean? Why is this concept especially important when discussing recessive genetic disorders?
3. What is it about the inheritance pattern of factor VIII deficiency seen in Greg and Olga’s pedigree that point toward it not being an autosomal recessive trait?

Questions

1. What are the characteristics of X-linked recessive inheritance?
2. Why does a son never inherit his father’s defective X chromosome? 
3. What is required for a woman to display a sex-linked recessive trait?
4. Return to the pedigree drawn earlier for Greg and Olga; mark those persons who are carriers of the factor VIII deficiency gene.
5. What is the chance that Olga carries the gene for factor VIII deficiency? Calculate the probability that she will pass it to her offspring. Will male children be affected in a different way than female children?
6. What is the chance that Greg carries the factor VIII gene? Can he pass the gene on to his sons? His daughters? How will each be affected?

Questions

1. What is the second equation?
2. The incidence of cystic fibrosis in Hispanic Americans is 1/4500 while in African Americans cystic fibrosis is seen in 1 of every 15,000 births. What is the carrier frequency for each of these populations?
3. What is the probability of two Hispanic Americans having a child with cystic fibrosis, given that there is no history of the disease in either’s family?
4. Carol is an African American woman who does not suffer from CF. Both of her parents are healthy but her brother has cystic fibrosis. Carol is planning a family with her husband Marcus, who is also African American but who has no history of CF in his family. What is the probability of their having a child with CF

   
   

   Questions

   1. What are some of the risks and benefits of genetic testing as it relates to legal (not medical) issues?
   2. Do you think an unintended consequence of genetic testing could be that people would be less liable to seek medical care out of fear that they could later be denied life or health insurance? What laws should be used to govern the use of genetic data of this type?

Eugenics

Eugenics  is the study of how genes are passed from father and mother through generations of people plants and animals. Eugenics started to develop in the wake of turbulent economic and social problems following right after the civil war. When  the american revolution started up many started moving away from farms but the economic system would be good then get bad recession after recession. During this time they tried to explain social end economic inequalities.  But this system became know as progressivism  in this idea was scientific management. Genetics now appeared to explain the underlying cause of human social problems. The scientific origins of Eugenics is it started in the twentieth century it was a new common philosophy of human worth. They used pedigrees to make what is like a family tree to show what traits were passed on through certain generations. They sought to recognize certain patterns. They did this studies on plants animals and humans.They watched for the genes that were passed from parents to children. they kept track by making marks on the chart to keep track what was passed.But some the flaws were that it was hard to scale how smart some one is back then  and they had issues defining  traits. Very poor surveying and statistical methods. Didn't have trained employes. This impacted American society in many ways it brought the study of genes. which make it so we can study disease and viruses and many other organisms. It also lead to the discovery of how genes work and produce every thing you ever see.

How to Make babies Genetics

in the process of making a baby two separate cells join together to create a complex process that makes up every one of us. one of these cells is called a sperm, the other is an egg the both must work together to  make what we would call a baby. When they start this the egg must allow just one sperm in. Once that happens they began to split into separate cells taking twenty three  cells to both sides, then the two cells split in two again.

Mitosis and The cell cycle and stem cells

Mitosis and the cell cycle are the process in which cells go through to create new cells there are a couple of steps through out the process. First the cells must make copies of DNA. Starting the process of prophase. After this they go into the Metaphase process and the microtubles start to get kinetochore halfway through the spindle poles.   Then they go into the anaphase stage and they start  to line up in center and make new wall, Tubules start to disappear. Telophase New cells are formed two daughter cells now existe.

Stem cells are what contain all the information on how to grow every part in your body. with certain animal they have an unlimited amount of them but we as humans do not. in this other animals this cells that they have in abundace are used to regrow parts that get cut of or what ever may happen.

Meiosis is slightly different from mitosis the first several steps are the same the dna replicates but when it gets to the metaphase and its starting to get to the anaphase stage the cells divide like they would in mitosis  but instead of dividing the cells equally the mother cells go on one side and the father cell goes to the other and the replicated cell starts to bond in the new daughter cells that have been created then they run there cycle over and over.

PKU

(Pku)This stands for Phenylketonuria. This is a disease  that creates some kind of genetic disorder characterized by a deficiency in the hepatic enzymes. The enzyme is necessary to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine. Usually they do screening for this in new born babies. The reason this is so bad is because it can create brain damage and if not taken care of or treated properly its progressiveness will create mental retardation. Later studies said that a healthy diet can help but in recent studies show that  in worse cases you need protein supplements and need to lower phe levels to safe range.

Graphs for lab

In this lab we used 3ml of water and 3ml of peroxide and different numbers of drops of yeast. What we did then was we mixed three different amount of drops in 3 different tubes with the same amount of water and peroxide. We then put a stopper with a pressure sensor on it. and watched the graph rise  we did 3 sets f three the first one had a variable  of different amounts of drops , the second we used different ph levels, and the last on we  had different temperatures. All of these showed different rates of reaction and we Graphed them.The graphs above the the different reaction rates and the amount of prssure put out by these reactions.

rattle snake venom

Rattle snake venom is a very toxic and some times fatal poison if not treated right away. There are three basic types of venom Hemotoxic, Cytotoxic, and neurotoxic. the first effects cardiovascular system the second effects the muscles and the last effects the brain and nervous system. The venom is a mixture of proteins and enzymes. When bitten by a snake with hemotoxic venom it typically acts to lower blood pressure and encourage blood clotting. When bitten by a snake with Cytotoxic venom it is designed to cause tissue damage and spread through out the body. And when bitten by a snake with  a neurotoxic venom it is designed to shut down the nervous system and the brain most the time causing paralysis or lack of muscle movement.



InfoProvided By: http://www.wisegeek.com/how-does-snake-venom-affect-the-human-body.htm

Plants and animal cells

Plant cells and animal cells both have a cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. But in a plant cells it has a cell wall and it has chloroplast that is unique to just plant cells. A plant cell use lights rays from the sun to create sugars that provide the plant with nutrients. With an animal cell it has Centrosome which divids the cells, and Centriolise. Animal cells cant use light like plant cells do instead it relies on individual cells to break down nutrients that is absorbed into the body.

Fluid Mosaic modle

In this project i didn't really understand how the cells worked. I didn't understand what the different proteins were and what they did but now i know.The different proteins in this cells are integral and peripheral proteins, integral proteins are hydrophobic and peripheral proteins are hydrophilic. After reading and doing our experiments in the class room i  came to under stand how this worked, a little better than i did before. one lets negative ions pass and the other lets positive ions pass. phospholipids are like the shell of the cell they cover the entire cell and  have little tentacles to grab on to  each other with and they connect the cell. That is all i have for today.

C map

antacids

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antacids

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